Introduction

Emotions are a crucial part of human existence. They are part of complex coping mechanisms installed by a Creator God whose own emotions (and particularly the biblical assertion that He is love [1 John 4:8]) are reflected in humanity’s creation in the imago Dei, the “image of God” (Gen 1:27).¹ Joy, exuberance, anticipation, pleasure, delight, happiness must have all been part of God’s original make-up of humanity for they characterize our existence today. Unfortunately, anger, sadness, sorrow, fear, depression, dejection, misery, and fury became part of our emotional repertoire following the fall in Genesis 3.

The study of emotions in the Bible is an area of research that has only recently enjoyed increasing interest.² Many of these studies focused on emotions expressed in texts, even though a 2017 volume, edited by Sara Kipfer in the Orbis Biblicus et Orientalis series, has offered a new angle and focused on the expression of emotions in ancient images and iconography.³ A casual look at commentaries and general introductions to apocalyptic literature illustrates this observation where there is seldom any reference to the emotions or emotional expressions of the biblical text or the author. In the words of Paul Kruger, “emotions were for a long time regarded as part of the irrational, uncontrollable, and subjective aspects of humankind that do not justify serious study.”⁴

In this study we focus upon the little explored field of the emotions and emotive language in biblical apocalyptic literature, concentrating on selected texts from Daniel and Revelation.⁵ We presuppose the wholistic nature of human beings in this research,⁶ as reflected in both Old and New Testaments. This means that since we were created in the image and likeness of God (Gen 1:26, 27) we assume that our emotions and emotive makeup also reflect in some way God’s emotions—even though we recognize that ours are subject to sin while His are not.⁷ This wholistic view of human being suggests that emotions are an integral part of the overall human existence.⁸ As argued in our earlier research, we propose that emotions and emotional expressions are an integral part of God’s prophetic message communicated through His prophets. They contribute to the meaning of that message and are not accidental literary byproducts.

Before we attempt to describe the emotional involvement of prophets in a divinely given vision as well as the reaction of the prophet to this vision we will offer a working definition of emotions and attempt a brief review of how emotions work. This will be followed by a discussion of selected negative and positive emotional expressions in the apocalyptic books of Daniel (focusing on chapters 7–12) and Revelation, as well as some of the emotive responses that the reader of these books is encouraged to experience. Finally, we offer some tentative conclusions growing out of this pioneering research and suggestions for further research.

How Emotions Work: Toward a Definition of Emotions

Because emotions are so intrinsically interconnected with our general make-up as human beings it is often difficult to adequately define them. To complicate matters further, emotions have to do with expression as well as experience. In other words, we experience emotions and then also express emotions. They are communicated in the form of facial expressions as well as linguistic expressions—in verbal or physical expressions and in written forms. It may thus be more useful to define what an emotion does rather than what it is.

Klaus Scherer provides an excellent definition of emotion as to what it does. He suggests that an emotion is “an episode of interrelated, synchronized changes in the states of all or most of the five organismic subsystems in response to the evaluation of an external or internal stimulus event as relevant to major concerns of the organism.”⁹

It should be noticed that emotions are normally triggered by stimulus events. In other words, something happens that triggers an emotion in a person. Sometimes another emotion is triggered or amplified by our evaluation of the event afterwards. Elizabeth Phelps, a psychologist at New York University, reminds us of the close link between the mind and emotions.¹⁰ Emotions are generated by thoughts and memories and these then react upon the mind processes and strengthen or inhibit certain mental process. It is even possible to generate an emotion by imagined representations.¹¹

Emotions serve in a certain sense as relevance detectors. We generally get emotional about people and things that we care about. It has been suggested that emotions are also the biggest influence on behavior and can interrupt a behavioral sequence and serve as the trigger for setting new goals and plans.¹²

Emotions impact communication and social interaction. The physical appearance, albeit often involuntary, of facial expressions will lead to a reaction in one’s conversation partner. Subtle changes in non-verbal expressions may indicate dissonance from verbal expressions and communication.¹³

Finally, an emotion is more than a feeling. Emotions, unlike feelings, while seemingly elusive and hard to define do produce measurable differences in the central nervous system.¹⁴ Considering the close relationship between mind and emotions, we will now turn our attention to the question how emotions interact with prophetic text.

Prophetic Emotional Responses

Although the text does not often directly address the emotions of the prophetic author of an apocalyptic text, a variety of techniques are used to portray the prophet’s emotions. As has been noted by Phinney, most prophetic books use a combination of third person narrative and the prophet’s own voice in their portrayals in order to indicate personal (and, at times, emotional) responses.¹⁵

One of the most common ways of expressing emotions in the biblical text (and particularly the Old Testament) is to speak of emotions as bodily occurrences.¹⁶ Even in English emotions are often talked of as “bodily” experiences. For example, we may say that on hearing bad news “we went weak in the knees,” or that a person’s statement made “the blood boil.” Kruger has included a helpful list of 19 physiological changes marking fear in the Hebrew Bible.¹⁷ They include physical agitation (involving “trembling” [Exod 19:16]; “quivering” [Exod 15:15]; “shaking” [Exod 20:18]; or “quaking” [Exod 15:14]); an increased heart rate (Ps 38:11); blood leaving one’s face (the Hebrew רוָּפאר וּצבִּקְ in Nah 2:11 means literally “gathered paleness”); hair straightening (Job 4:14–15); inability to move (Exod 15:16); inability to breathe (Dan 10:17); etc. Similarly, Kruger lists numerous metaphorical expressions involving anger, including the body as a container for anger (Isa 30:27; Ezek 38:18); increasing anger that produces steam (2 Sam 22:9; Job 4:9); anger as fire (Isa 30:27; Jer 4:4; etc.); or anger as an opponent (Ps 69:25) or a dangerous animal (Ezek 43:8).¹⁸ The positive emotion of joy often involves semantic domains of singing and proclaiming. Furthermore, joy can be seen in distinct body parts. Joy makes a cheerful face (Prov 15:13) and lights up the eyes (Prov 15:30). Joy is also marked by a mouth filled with laughter (Job 8:21; Ps 126:2).¹⁹

Beyond these more general descriptions of emotions let’s look at specific examples of the author’s emotional involvement in their apocalyptic messages.

Prophetic Emotional Involvement in Divine Visions

Apocalyptic visions were not detached academic exercises for Daniel and John (and other prophets who received visions pointing to final events). They not only observed events and places in vision, they were often active in the vision and became emotionally involved in the scenes portrayed. John was told to eat a book during the vision (Rev 10:9).²⁰ He also was given a measuring rod and told to participate by measuring (Rev 11:1). Furthermore, both Daniel and John often participated in visions by asking and being asked questions (e.g., Dan 10:20; 12:8, Rev 7:13; 17:7).

Both prophets also felt a range of emotions in vision. When catching a glimpse of God’s glory, they often experienced the sensation of fear and awe. After seeing someone “like the Son of Man” (Rev 1:13) John falls at his feet “as dead” (Rev 1:17). Daniel’s experience is similar. In his vision Daniel notices a ram and a goat and tries to make sense of what he is seeing when Gabriel approaches Daniel to explain the vision. Daniel reports that he was “frightened and fell on my face” (Dan 8:17; cf. 10:8).

Fear, however, is not the only emotion experienced in vision. For example, emotional participation in a vision is illustrated by John who becomes so intricately involved in the vision of the scroll with the seven seals that he “wept much” (Rev 5:4) when no-one is found worthy to open the scroll. Notice the extreme emotion accentuated by the intensification of the verbal action.

Not all of John’s emotional involvement in vision is negative as is illustrated by his reaction to the woman who was drunk with the blood of the saints in Revelation 17. When John sees her he “marveled with great amazement” (Rev 17:6). The literal translation of the Greek text would be “I marveled a great marvel,” expressing great astonishment.²¹ Translators and commentators have struggled to understand this expression because this emotion could express a positive sense of awe.²² The same Greek word is used in Revelation 13:3 describing the astonishment or marvel of the whole world as it witnesses the miraculous recovery of the beast from its fatal wound. In Revelation 13 this astonishment transforms observers into followers. John’s emotional expression in Revelation 17:6 must have been so obvious as to evoke a question by the accompanying angel in verse 7.

For the prophet Daniel the intensity of the emotion he experienced in vison and the struggle to make sense of it resulted in him becoming so anguished as to even become physically ill. Following his vision of the 2,300 evenings and mornings, Daniel lay ill for several days. He was “astonished” by the vision because it was for him at that time beyond understanding (8:27).

Emotional Responses in Daniel and Revelation

Beyond the obvious recognition of emotional involvement or responses to divine messages, the following discussion distinguishes more specifically between negative and positive emotions depicted in the books of Daniel and Revelation. We will attempt a more systematic approach without claiming completeness.

Negative Emotions in Daniel and Revelation

Apocalyptic literature normally covers big action and sweeping events; yet it is also punctuated with strong, almost larger than life, contrasting positive and negative emotions and emotional responses to the climatic events described.

Even a superficial reading of Revelation cannot miss the descriptions of vivid physical pain experienced by the wicked and the corresponding emotions of terror and fear this invokes. For example, after the fifth trumpet, men are described as being in agony like the result of scorpion stings. The pain is so intense that they wish for death (Rev 9:5, 6).²³ Other graphic description of the physical pain experienced by the wicked is depicted in Revelation 16 after the bowls of God’s wrath have been poured out. Those who have the mark of the beast experience loathsome sores, scorching heat and a painful darkness. The intensity of this negative emotion is demonstrated by the fact that the wicked gnaw their tongues in agony and react by cursing (Rev 16:10, 21).²⁴

The book of Revelation is full of surprises and some of these are emotionally charged. In Revelation 11 we hear that the inhabitants of the earth celebrate and send gifts (verse 10). In the HB giving gifts was often associated with affirming existing social relationships or initiating new ones.²⁵ Similarly, the bonds of God’s opponents from “peoples, tribes, tongues, and nations” (cf. the corresponding group of those needing to hear the Good News found in Rev 14:6) are strengthened by their shared celebration of the death of God’s two witnesses who have even been refused a burial. The gloating is short-lived though with the resurrection of the two witnesses and their ascension, which culminates in a great earthquake that leaves the survivors terrified and giving glory to the God of heaven (v. 13). The use of “give glory” suggests a positive reaction, yet it is used here as a shortcut for confession, but not necessarily repentance.²⁶ Echoing Joshua’s plea to Achan in Joshua 7:19, who was admonished to “give glory to the Lord god of Israel, and make confession to Him,” the inhabitants of the earth are to confess God’s righteous judgments. The declaration of God’s righteousness is an important element in theodicy and the cosmic controversy between Satan and God.²⁷ In Revelation we see even natural emotional responses that are turned upside down and sometimes a positive emotion helps underline the decadence and unnatural emotions of the wicked.

The most frequently used negative emotional reactions of those who have spurned God’s mercy to the unfolding drama of end-time, which Daniel describes as “the time of trouble such as never was since there was a nation” (Dan 12:1), is weeping and mourning (Rev 18:9, 15, 19) and sheer terror (Rev 18:10, 11, 12).²⁸ This emotive response suggests desperation and the realization that salvation is not available any more.

An unusual emotion is attributed to those who worship the beast in Revelation 14:11. Intriguingly, they are described as having “no rest day or night.” This rest is more than a stop of physical activity and describes well the underlying Angst and baseline emotional state that they operate in as their world falls apart by the events transpiring in the end-times. Since the message of the three angels of Revelation 14 is also closely associated with the Sabbath (cf. 14:6–7, 9–11), this experience of “un-rest” is directly related to the rejection of the true worship of the Creator, including the Sabbath.²⁹

While the focus of emotional activity is earth, God does not stand emotionless or aloof, but rather than directly attributing emotions and emotional responses to God, His emotions are couched in indirect form. In Revelation 16 we hear of the bowls of God’s wrath, which are poured out by different angels upon the earth. God’s wrath here is depicted as a liquid. In Revelation 14:10 we see those with the mark of the beast drinking the “wine of the wrath of God,” which is poured out undiluted into the cup of His indignation. In keeping with the imagery of wine we also have the grapes trampled in the winepress of the wrath of God in v. 19. This metaphorical description of God’s emotions serves to counteract the medieval image of a continually angry God actively seeking to punish sinners.

The fact is that God’s anger is not directed at sinners but at sin. Righteousness and vindication of His character and His people are at the center of the book of Revelation. “Is God just to allow his people to be treated unjustly by wicked men, and is he just to exact divine warfare against the earth’s inhabitants?,” asks Alan Brady. “In a sense,” he continues, “that is one of the primary questions addressed in the book of Revelation when it is voiced by the souls of martyred saints in Revelation 6:10. The answer to this question is found throughout John’s vision amid scenes of judgment, wrath and vindication. The vision unambiguously depicts how the sovereign judge of the universe will render just verdicts that accord with his standards of truth and righteousness. He will hold all of humanity accountable for their sin, but especially for the way they treated his own covenantal people.”³⁰ God loves sinners and continues to reach out to mankind but when they reject Him there is a point of no return (Rev 22:11) at which sinners who cling to their sin will experience God’s righteous anger at sin. They have chosen to drink the cup. The presence of God will then bring only torment for them (Rev 14:10–11). These are those who respond to the greatest event in history, the Second Coming, with mourning (Rev 1:7) that becomes absolute terror as they, “Seek death, hide in caves and plead with the rocks to fall on them” (Rev 5:15).

God and humans are not the only ones experiencing negative emotions in the cosmic controversy. John notes some other emotive responses to end-time events by other participants. The eagle in revelation calls out in a loud voice, “Woe, Woe, Woe” (Rev 8:13) intensifying the anguish that will result from the three angles’ trumpet blasts. The woman in Revelation 12:2 cries out in pain of childbirth. The pain is intensified as the reader realizes that this birth pain is psychological too as the dragon is standing in front of the woman ready to devour her child as soon as he is born. Gratefully this pain becomes a blessing as the woman gives birth to a child who will rule with an iron scepter—and then the child is caught up to God.

At this point we are given the emotional motive for the mastermind behind all this cosmic upheaval and the source of all the negative emotions. The great fiery red seven-headed dragon who has failed to destroy the newborn male child is enraged at the woman and in response goes to make war against the rest of the woman’s offspring (Rev 12:17).31 Unlike God’s anger and wrath which is specific and not personal vengeance the enraged dragon will try to destroy and take with him as many people as he can.

Positive Emotions in Daniel and Revelation

As has already been pointed out, the apocalyptic events depicted in the books of Daniel and Revelation call out strong emotional responses in all participants. Everyone in heaven and on earth is affected. All of the heavenly host seem to be involved. There is so much participation, and the heavenly beings demonstrate empathy even for those suffering the results of their own choices. There are no whispered backroom conversations but angels repeatedly calling in loud voices. In some cases, a loud voice denotes urgency, as shown by the angel with the seal of the living God calling out to four angels holding back the four winds (Rev 7:1–3); or the mighty angel of Revelation 18 who illuminates the earth and calls in a loud voice, suggesting the worldwide impact of his message announcing the fall of Babylon the Great. In one unusual case there is a mighty angel that shouts with a loud voice that sounds like a lion’s roar and the seven thunders respond, but John is not permitted to record what they say (Rev 10:1– 7).³² They seem to invoke the emotion of mystery and help the reader focus on the solemn oath that follows and the unveiling of the “mystery of God.”³³

Even in the book of Daniel, with its much-condensed apocalyptic overview, we find heavenly agents and entities fully involved in the visons. In Daniel 7:16 a heavenly messenger explains the vision to Daniel, while in chapter 10 another heavenly being of impressive appearance offers explanations. This man-like being dressed in priestly linen clothing, has a face like the appearance of lightning and a voice that was like a multitude (verse 6).³⁴ Those with Daniel flee in terror at the sound of this voice even though they are not in vision. Daniel is left with no strength, face down on the ground (verses 8–9) and will need the next ten verses of reassurance and comfort and strengthening before he is in any condition to get up and take in the rest of the vision’s explanation (verses 10–19).

Most often the loud voices are an expression of intensely joyful emotion, which is channeled into singing, and falling down in worship. The 24 elders, the four living creatures, the saints, and the ten thousand times ten thousand, and thousands of thousands of angels (Rev 5:11) repeatedly demonstrate this intense joy as they see God’s rescue plan unveiled (Rev 7:9–12, etc.).³⁵

Emotions are not only conveyed by actual emotive words but also by literary forms and genres in the biblical text. Public and private moments of victory and joy are often expressed in poetic verse and song.³⁶ In the book of Revelation there are numerous references to this highly emotive genre of songs (Rev 4:8, 11; 19:1–5; etc.). In Revelation 5:8–9 the four living creatures and the 24 elders don’t just fall to the ground and sing; they sing a “new song” after the Lamb proves worthy to break the seal that no one could open. The concept of a “new song” appears repeatedly in the Psalms (Ps 33:3; 40:3; 96:1; 144:9; 149:1) and is usually considered a conscious response to a specific divine blessing or mercy. Osborne has suggested that the reference to a “new song” in Isaiah 42:10 “is eschatological and connected to the appearance of the ‘servant of Yahweh’ and the ‘new things’ (Rev. 5:9) God was about to introduce.”³⁷ This “new song” imagery is repeated in Revelation 14:3 and linked to God’s coming kingdom, which will be completely different from the sin-stained reality John (and we) know today.

Revelation 7:14–17 serves as an example of poetic verse that conveys intense joy, hope and comfort as one of the elders explains the reward of those who come out of the great tribulation. It has been well recognized that τῆς θλίψεως τῆς μεγάλης, “the great tribulation,” is an echo of Daniel 12:1 and closely associated with the end-times.³⁸ Their experience of salvation (“washed their robes and made the white in the blood of the Lamb,” verse 14), their location close to God, and their constant service to their master and the promise to never hunger or thirst or mourn and cry again must result in a sense of joy and jubilation. Who can remain quiet when we experience God’s wonders and grace?

In contrast to the wicked who find no rest there is a sense of peacefulness that seem to pervade God’s people facing end-times. There will be pain and even death for the righteous as the drama of history unfolds (Rev 6:10) but they know that all will end well and this gives them an understated peacefulness and patience (Rev 14:12) Those who die are blessed as they find rest (Rev 14:13).

In contrast to the wrath of God being poured out on the wicked, we have a very hands-on description of the act of God bringing healing and joy after the pain that the saved have experienced. Revelation 21:4 depicts God in the very intimate act of wiping every tear from their eyes (cf. 7:17; most likely echoing Isa 25:8). Death’s death and God’s restorative promises are introduced by the very intimate description of God wiping away tears. The positive emotional environment of the new heaven and the new earth is often expressed by the absence of things and events that cause negative emotions. There will be no more mourning of the dead, crying or pain (Rev 17:7), no night, nothing impure, shameful or deceitful (Rev 21:25–27) and no more curse (Rev 22:3). Even things that represent a good and needed part of life (like a temple or the sun or moon) are not needed there anymore (Rev 21:22-23), because the saved see God face to face (Rev 22:4) and live with Him as his children (Rev 21:7).

Anticipated Reader Response

As we have seen emotional involvement in the apocalyptic texts of Daniel and Revelation is universal with God and all living beings being described as emotionally invested. Unlike other prophetic biblical literature that focuses primarily on the immediate audience, the apocalyptic books of Daniel and Revelation include a distant end-time audience directly and seek to intentionally involve this audience emotionally.

Although Daniel knows that the end will not be in his lifetime (Dan 12:9), the audience is warned of “a time of trouble such as never was” (Dan 12:1). Those who have not chosen to be a part of God’s people and have died will awake to the emotions of shame and everlasting contempt (verse 2) while the wise will have not just everlasting life but will shine like the stars (verse 3). The power of shame in eastern cultures (including the Bible’s) has been well documented.³⁹ Shame is an emotional response and a distinct possible translation for “contempt” is abhorrence.⁴⁰ Both express strong emotional responses. Their appearance in the context of a resurrection underlines the notion of theodicy, the justification and vindication of a righteous and just God, before the universe.

In the final chapter of Revelation attempts to emotionally involve the reader are even more directed as this prophecy is not sealed because the time is near (Rev 22:10). The reader is invited directly to “Come” (verse 17). Those who keep the words of the prophecy are blessed or happy (verse 7); they have washed their robes and have a right to the tree of life (verse 14), and the free gift of the water of life (verse 17).

On the other hand, those who attempt to tamper with the prophecy are warned of extra plagues and God taking away this reader’s rights to the city; his name would be removed from the book of life (verses 18–19).

Instead of a Conclusion

This brief introduction to emotions and emotive language of biblical apocalyptic literature in Daniel and Revelation suggests that emotions and emotive language were an integral part of both the vision experience and are also part of the reading process of apocalyptic literature.

Emotions have many functions in apocalyptic literature. They serve as mnemonic devices and helped keep the message vivid in the mind of the prophet as well as the audience.

Emotions serve as relevance detectors. Thus emotional expressions in the prophetic books can serve to highlight certain themes or sections of a vision. Daniel’s reaction to the 2,300 evenings and mornings prophecy serves to heighten the importance of the vision, builds tension, and underlines the later explanation of this prophecy (cf. Dan 8:27).⁴¹

The fact that emotions are one of the biggest influence on human behavior and can interrupt a behavioral sequence as well as serve as the trigger for setting new goals and plans seems to be reinforced throughout the apocalyptic literature. The goal of apocalyptic literature is not to simply to predict the future or provide a timetable for end-time events, but rather to bring a sense of the sinfulness and consequences of sinful behavior. Furthermore, the reward of surrendering to God is part of the divine strategy to inspire the audience to set new goals and new plans. This represents in essence the biblical concept of repentance or “turning around.”⁴² This goal is reflected most clearly in the choice of language in Daniel and Revelation which is often calculated to shock, startle, and get attention. By clearly showing the emotional involvement and motivation of God (who is love) and the Devil (who is angry and vicious) as well as clearly portraying the emotional consequences of being one of the wicked or one of the saved these apocalyptic books attempts to trigger an emotional response from the immediate and distant audience that will lead many to join in the song of Moses and the Lamb (Rev 15:3) before God’s throne.