Introduction

The book of Revelation contains the most extensive eschatology in the Bible and refers to the motif of the temple throughout the book. It is hard to say precisely about the place of the temple in the book,¹ however the temple itself, its attributes, associated activities, and rituals are found in all parts of the book. Even though it is hard to talk without a doubt about John’s understanding of the reality of the heavenly temple being based on the images of the Revelation because of the symbolic language of the whole book,² this motif and its meaning are essential for a deeper understanding of the structure and ideas of the book.³

Revelation is not the only, the first, or the last apocalypse, but it is a part of the Jewish apocalyptic tradition,⁴ developed within the Christian teaching. Revelation therefore appeals to issues, uses methods and images that have already been formed in the Jewish apocalyptic, interpreting it in the light of the Christian understanding of eschatology. Apocalyptic literature is only a small part of the Jewish and Christian texts dealing with the issues of eschatology. Nevertheless, these texts are focused on eschatology, they have most vivid expression of it, and even are identified with it terminologically sometimes.⁵

The interest of this article is in understanding of the place the heavenly temple occupies in the eschatological views of the Jewish apocalypse and in the Revelation, which are the distinctive features of the notions of the temple in Revelation.

The importance of this issue for Adventist theology is in realization of the roots of Revelation’s author’s idea of the heavenly temple. Hence it can provide a better understanding of the importance of the heavenly temple for John, of what he meant by using this image and speaking that there was no temple in New Jerusalem.⁶

To answer this question, it is necessary to determine what the temple means in apocalyptic texts, what the temple is like, how it is described, what place the motif of the temple occupies in the eschatological representations of these texts.

The choice of texts was determined by the generally accepted genre⁷ of texts in the academic field, by the presence of the ideas of the heavenly temple in the texts, and by the supposed relation of these texts to the Jewish apocalyptic tradition, because we consider the book of Revelation to have a relation to it. To this tradition we attribute all the Jewish apocalypses that preceded Revelation chronologically, were contemporary with it, or were even later if they contain the ideas of the Judaism of I-II centuries AD (especially the Third Book of Enoch, written much later but included in this paper).

Heavenly Temple in Jewish Eschatology

Temple and eschatology: preliminary observations

The apocalyptic literature of Judaism played an important role in the development of New Testament eschatological conceptions.⁸ Käsemann wrote that "all Christian theology came out of the Apocalypse". Many other scholars agree that the apocalyptic is indeed one of the keys to understanding the whole New Testament.⁹ The temple is not the central concept in the apocalyptic literature and it’s not found in all apocalyptic texts. Nor can it be said that the temple takes a leading place in the eschatological representations of biblical or extra-biblical texts of Judaism and Christianity. In those texts where it is present it is often important not in itself but as a symbol of something. Nevertheless, I’m sure that the motif of the temple is important enough for the expression of some eschatological ideas in the apocalyptic literature. With sufficient confidence it can be said that the theme of the heavenly temple perfectly conveys one of the main ideas of the apocalyptic literature — to show believers a "true", divine reality, unmasking the one they experience.¹⁰

The idea of the heavenly temple

It is not necessary to speak about the idea of the Temple in OT and NT here: it is very wide and well-researched theme.¹¹ It can only be mentioned that (1) both OT and NT speak about literal and non-literal temple with different language and images; (2) Israelite sanctuary (temple) had several functions, one of the main of them is to be the place of the presence of God (Ex. 25:8); (3) the Book of Ezekiel is the OT-basis for all apocalyptic texts. Ezek.40-48 became a model of the future (or heavenly) temple for the authors of subsequent apocalypses.¹²

It is believed that the development of the heavenly temple concept was historically contributed to by the destruction of the First Temple, different problems with the Second Temple (the absence of the manifestation of God’s glory, the defilement by Antiochus Epiphanes, the interruption of the traditional transfer of the high priesthood), and finally, with the destruction of the Second Temple.¹³ Therefore, the concept of the heavenly temple explicitly appears in the literature of the Second Temple period and in a short period after temple’s destruction. Nevertheless, the very concept of a heavenly temple (or temples) arises in the people’s minds much earlier. This idea was reflected in mythology.¹⁴ The very idea that the temple built by people on earth is a copy or projection of heavenly realities also rooted there.¹⁵ The same idea occurs in the OT, from the first mention of the construction of the sanctuary: God "shows" Moses a "pattern" (Ex. 25: 9, 40). These very texts had become the theological basis upon which the idea of the heavenly temple was built. There are other texts in the OT where the idea of a heavenly temple can be seen.¹⁶ Therefore, in my opinion, it’s not less important to investigate the texts of the same or a close period and similar genre to the Revelation to see if they would help in understanding of the heavenly temple in Revelation.

According to the collection of texts by James Charlesworth¹⁷ there are about 14 apocalyptic texts chronologically close to Revelation (3rd century BC – 2nd century AD).¹⁸ As I have already mentioned, it is also worthwhile to include 3 Enoch to that list, because in the opinion of researchers it’s based on the ideas of the first century AD, though the text is dated 5th – 6th centuries AD.¹⁹ In addition, attention should be paid to some texts from Qumran that were not published in Charlesworth’s edition: The Temple Scroll, The Community Rule, Songs for the Holocaust of the Sabbath and some others.²⁰ However, not all these texts contain explicit or implicit reference to the heavenly temple. Some texts speak of eschatological temple, but it is on earth.²¹

It is also worth adding Testament of Levi to the texts under consideration, because the genre of the testament and the genre of the apocalypse are considered close and even often merging, and this text also contains an eschatological perspective of the image of the heavenly temple. Therefore, the main sources for us are the following: Book of Watchers (1 Enoch), 2 Enoch, 3 Enoch, 3 Baruch, Apocalypse of Abraham, Testament of Levi, Songs for the Holocaust of the Sabbath. The concept of the heavenly temple in each of these texts will be described in order.

Heavenly Temple in Jewish Apocalyptic Texts

First (Ethiopic) Enoch

The concept of a celestial temple can be found in the Book of the Watchers (1 Enoch 1–36).²² In the 14th chapter Enoch ascends to heaven and sees the temple (1En. 14:9–23). Although the word "temple" isn’t used in the text, but the word "house" is used, its structure mirrors the structure of the Jerusalem temple.²³ The very sky, therefore, is understood as a temple.²⁴ The description is composed of elements that dissolve each other. Author attempted to show the transcendence of God, who cannot be described in human terms. God in this vision is holy and inaccessible, no one can enter His presence in the Holy of Holies of the temple. Only Enoch was allowed to enter the presence of God in heaven to fulfill the mediation mission entrusted to him.²⁵ This text, as well as several texts of the OT, shows the tradition connecting the calling of the prophet with the temple (Is.6), and the tradition of linking the temple and the Divine judgment (see also Ps. 10 and Ps. 72:17).²⁶

Thus, the author of the Book of Watchers understands the temple as the dwelling place of God, as the place where the Divine judgment takes place, and as the place for the calling of a prophet. The description of the heavenly temple emphasizes the holiness and inaccessibility of God, separated from the whole creation.

Second (Slavonic) Enoch

2 Enoch,²⁷ where Enoch ascends through 7 heavens, also understands the sky as a temple. However, here the emphasis is on the fact that the sky is a place of liturgical activity perceived as songs and praise. Angels lead Enoch to the throne of God and leave one to meet with God. Enoch’s garments changed into new one and his priestly status is confirmed.²⁸ Thus, the celestial temple here is the place of the celestial liturgy and the dedication of the priests.

Third (Hebrew) Enoch

In 3 Enoch²⁹ the heavenly sanctuary is mentioned in chapters 1–2, and represents several buildings, one inside the other (3 Enoch 1:2–3, 5–6). The seventh palace (temple) is the dwelling place of God. 3 Enoch 45 describes a veil before God, with all generations of people inscribed on it, which refers to the veil before the Holy of Holies of the temple (3 Enoch 45:1). Unlike 1 Enoch here God is shown not alone but surrounded by a multitude of angels.³⁰ There is no detailed description of the temple in the book, but much more attention is paid to the angels. However, a journey through 6 palaces (temples) to the abode of God also reveals God's separation from the rest of the world and the difficulty of coming to His presence.

Third (Greek) Baruch

The Third book of Baruch written after the destruction of the Jerusalem temple³¹ does not speak explicitly about the heavenly temple, but the structure of the sky repeats the structure of the temple. The concept of the heavenly temple is implicitly seen in the description of the role of Archangel Michael resembling the role of high priest. He is the only one who is allowed to enter the presence of God, who’s hidden in the fifth heaven in the Holy of Holies. Baruch is not allowed even to glimpse the divine throne, he only contemplates the mediation of Michael.³² Nevertheless, the final stop on Baruch’s tour is at the Heavenly Temple itself, and the tour’s content is devoted almost entirely to the material realia of the heavens.³³ Apparently, the task of Baruch is to show that the right relationship between God and people are possible even in the absence of sacrifices in the temple, because there is the temple in heaven where prayers and good deeds are brought to the throne of God by Michael.³⁴ The world and its cosmic structure are shown recovered, God’s people are recovered, earth is real, heaven is real, they maintain a cosmically unequal relationship, nothing shows any future changes in the world order.³⁵

Apocalypse of Abraham

In the second part of the apocalypse,³⁶ Abraham ascends to heaven in the celestial sanctuary, where he becomes a disciple of the heavenly high priest Yahoel, who fills him in on the details of the heavenly priestly ministry.³⁷ Abraham contemplates the throne of God represented like a chariot from the Book of Ezekiel. Abraham gains the opportunity to stand before the divine throne in the apocalypse by singing an angelic song, which makes him equal with the angels.³⁸ The apocalypse deliberately avoids anthropomorphism of God and other celestial beings. God is described in terms of voice or name (8:1).³⁹ The Slavonic apocalypse describes the temple as a place of presence of God's glory, which cannot be described with anthropomorphic concepts, that is, God seems inaccessible for understanding and description.

Testament of Levi

The Testament of Levi⁴⁰ contains speculations about seven heavens, the highest of which is the abode of God and is described in terms of the temple: The Holy of Holies (ἅγιον ἁγίων) at 3:4 and the Temple (ναός) at 18:6. The temple is also revealed in 5:1.⁴¹ There are different levels of holiness, separation among the angels, and the inaccessibility of the Holy of Holies for either Levi or the angels who came into contact with the world of people in this description. Apparently, this reflects the structure of the Jerusalem temple and the priesthood hierarchy in it. Thus, God is again represented as transcendent, absolute, and completely separated from the world of people and even from those who come into contact with this world.⁴² The temple here is at the same time the throne room of God, the place where God's righteous judgment comes from, and where the priests are ordained: it is the existence of the heavenly temple that legitimates the eschatological priesthood.⁴³

Songs for the Holocaust of the Sabbath⁴⁴

The Qumran text Songs for the Holocaust of the Sabbath⁴⁵ contains speculations about the heavenly temple in the context of the angelic liturgy. The concept of the celestial temple is well represented here, using plenty of terms from the temple vocabulary and Jerusalem temple’s structure.⁴⁶ This text is also closest to Revelation among other apocalypses.⁴⁷ The described temple consists of seven sanctuaries, however, most likely, it is one temple described with plural of majesty.⁴⁸ There is no altar in this temple, only the sacrifices of the angels' praise are brought here. Scholars suggest that it reflects the idea of the Qumranites, isolated from the Jerusalem temple, of the possibility of their participating in the liturgy with their praise without sacrifice.⁴⁹ Unlike some other texts discussed above there is no emphasis on the transcendence of God, but more emphasis is on the accessibility of worship through praise without blood sacrifice in the temple and on the participation of community members in the angelic liturgy. However, as in other texts, the celestial temple is represented as a reflection of the temple in Jerusalem.

The heavenly temple motif in the eschatology of the Jewish apocalypse

The apocalyptic texts above show a wide variety of Jewish thought about the heavenly temple. Summarizing the following issues about the role of the temple in their eschatological view we can note that:

• None of these texts have the temple (or sanctuary) as the main element. All texts represent the temple precisely as a place of personal presence of God, and the emphasis is either on the priesthood institution, or on the liturgy, or on the mediation of some heavenly being.

• All descriptions of the temple in these texts follow the structure of the Jerusalem temple, sometimes using the temple terminology. That is, the earthly temple is conceived as a copy (or a mirror) of the heavenly.⁵⁰ But, at the same time, the idea of a heavenly temple comes from the knowledge of the structure of the earthly one.

• Apparently, the sky itself is perceived as a temple,⁵¹ and the throne room of God is the Holy of Holies of this temple, although it’s not mentioned explicitly. The heavenly temple looks unshakable and eternal like the sky itself.⁵²

• God in all texts is in some way shown as a transcendent, separated from the world of people: the abode of God is the last and most inaccessible structure in heaven; direct access to the Divine is closed to people and sometimes to angels.

• No text speaks directly about the role of the heavenly temple in the redemptive activities of God, but the heavenly temple is the place where prayers are brought to God, intercession for people is made, priests are appointed. The temple itself acts as a buffer or mediation institution between God and mankind.

• The idea of a heavenly temple gives apocalyptic texts conceptual resources to maintain the sacerdotal tradition when the earthly Temple was no longer standing or in case of another religious crisis.⁵³

• The temple serves as the place from which all God's judgments come, where the oracles about last days announced to the prophets. However, there is no clear statement about the descent of the celestial temple to the earth in the eschaton, or about the human’s entry into the heavenly temple, or about some other temple’s participation in last time events. The connection between earthly eschatological temple described in some other Jewish apocalyptic texts with the heavenly temple also cannot be seen clearly.

• It can be assumed that the emphasis of the Jewish apocalypses on the liturgy shows that their eschatological goal was the affirmation of the earthly cultus "on earth as in heaven".⁵⁴

• For a number of apocalypses, the very existence of the true heavenly temple and its ministry is a constant reminder of God's faithfulness to his promises, of the relevance of the covenant and the Israel's elect status.⁵⁵

Heavenly Temple in Revelation

Approaches in the interpretation of the heavenly temple in Revelation

The book of Revelation is written with symbolic language and contains a series of visions located in a specific structure.⁵⁶ Despite the existence of different approaches to the interpretation of the book,⁵⁷ it is obvious that it is necessary to consider its language as the set of images. Therefore, the meaning of the heavenly temple image, although it is represented clearly, can also be understood in different ways.

Not all the texts in Revelation that speak of the temple fit easily into some general scheme. The very theme of the temple in Revelation is relatively poorly understood. That’s why most studies, according to Spatafora, only analyze single verses without finding common motif.⁵⁸ I’ve found four main approaches to the celestial temple in the Revelation in the scientific literature:

The ecclesiological⁵⁹

M.Bachmann, Y. Congar and some other scholars believe that the temple in Rev. 11:1–2 is the image of the church.⁶⁰ Spatafora believes that all uses of the word ναός are logically related: John uses the temple as an image of the church both in this era and in the future.⁶¹ The church is the heavenly temple, the place of God's presence, the intermediary for the transcendent, the sacrament. Such a church will disappear and will be replaced by a transformed and glorified church, the New Jerusalem, where God and humanity will be in close unity.⁶²

The temple as a metaphor for the sky; the dwelling place of God

R.J. McKelvey argues that the celestial temple is just an ancient idea of heaven, this image isn’t important for the book.⁶³ J. Daniélou understands the heavenly temple as a symbol of the heaven itself, where humanity is represented by Christ.⁶⁴ The SDA commentators also says that the Temple in Revelation is a metaphor for the direct presence of God, the dwelling place of God.⁶⁵ Beale understands the temple in Revelation rather as the reality of God's presence, expressed in different dimensions in various ways.⁶⁶

Contextual analysis of the temple

This method concerns different approaches that study the temple in the framework of some theological idea, analyzing the meaning of the temple in the literary context of separate passages, studying the temple in the context of the Jewish cultic calendar or within the cultural context.⁶⁷ G. Stevenson, Y. Congar and G. Bissoli follow this approach.⁶⁸

Real temple

Most of the scholars don’t perceive the temple in Revelation as something real because of the symbolic language of the book and the entire genre of apocalyptic. However, some Adventist scholars argue that “the Book of Revelation confirms the reality of a heavenly sanctuary and a real heavenly high priestly ministry”.⁶⁹

Heavenly Temple in Revelation: observation of texts

The theme of the temple is repeated throughout the Revelation.⁷⁰ The term ναός⁷¹ occurs sixteen times, at 3:12; 7:15; 11:1,2,19; 14:15,17; 15:5,6,8; 16:1,17; 21:22.⁷² The term σκηνή is also used three times speaking about the sanctuary (13:6, 15:5, 21:3).⁷³ In this paper, the image of the temple in Revelation is studied itself to understand the role of the temple itself in the eschatological views of the book, rather than the cult that was performed in it. For this reason, specific terms are used in the paper, but not the generally accepted pattern among Adventist scholars concerning the temple in the light of the Jewish cult calendar.

The role of the temple in these texts is briefly presented below.

3:12
This text is a part of Christ's message for the Church in Philadelphia (Rev.3:7–13). Here, Christ promises to make the victor a pillar⁷⁴ in the Temple of God. A pillar understood metaphorically can mean person’s important, integral part of the temple, whose position is unshakable. This very position is ensured by Jesus, who forever remains the King.⁷⁵ Thus, it says about the endtime when the work of salvation will be completed by Christ.⁷⁶ The temple here is directly connected with saved people. In this case, through the idea of an immutable eternal pillar, the idea of a divine presence with the redeemed is clearly shown, and the text speaks of the completion of the process begun by Christ with the opening of the doors of the heavenly sanctuary in 3:7-8.⁷⁷

7:15
The next appearance of the temple is in the description of the sixth seal (6:1–7:17), where the great multitude in white robes that serve God day and night in His temple is described. The context of this verse shows that the transcendental God is no longer separated from his people, dwelling with them. This multitude celebrates in the heavenly temple after they have been purified by the blood of the Lamb.⁷⁸ The temple is the place of the presence of God, and here it is identified with the throne of God.

11:1-2
This short passage refers to the measurement of the temple, the altar and the worshipers in it.⁷⁹ The measurement can have few OT allusions (Ezek.40-43, Zach.2:1-5, 2 Kings 8:2) and symbolically mean that something is marked as someone's property or doomed to destruction. It also can show separation between redeemed and pagans.⁸⁰ There is a division between the temple and the courtyard outside the temple in this text. However, this courtyard is part of the holy city (i.e. Jerusalem), which is given to the gentiles.⁸¹

11:19
This text following the sound of the seventh trumpet and the glorification of celestial beings speaks about the opening of the temple in heaven and the appearance of the ark of the covenant of God. This is the only place in NT where "heavenly temple" named plainly.⁸² The opening of the heaven in NT, as Spatafora emphasizes, speaks of Christ (Mat. 3:16; Lk.3:21; John 1:51; Acts 7:56; 10:11) and shows the possibility for a person to meet with God, because the sphere of the divine is in touch with the earth, which is possible through Christ, who’s the gate between the divine and human worlds. Meeting with the Divine is also evident in the language of theophany.⁸³ The ark, as it is represented in this text, is also a symbol of the new covenant established by Christ, and its opening speaks of the removal of the old covenant and the separation between the sacred and the profane: humans now have direct access to the Divine.⁸⁴

13:6
This text is in a passage, talking about the actions of the beast against God and His people. Here used both a noun σκηνή and a verb σκηνόω, indicating the sanctuary and those dwelling in heaven. Here, as in 11:1-2, the believers living on earth correlated with the heavenly sanctuary of God. That is, saints on earth, loyal to heavenly citizenship, is a visible target for the persecution of the beast and his attack on the heaven itself.⁸⁵

14: 15, 17
Pericope Rev. 14:14-20 speaks of the sickle and the harvest. The angel here comes out of the temple twice and gives a command to one who sat on the cloud like the Son of man, that is, the command is clearly coming from God. Thus, the heavenly temple here is clearly associated with God, and commands are issued from him.

15: 5, 6, 8
Verses 15:1-8 represent a pericope with a description of the vision that is the entry to the outpouring of the seven cups of wrath. Here the temple is called "the temple of the tabernacle of the testimony", that is, both words used in Revelation in relation to the temple are used in one phrase.⁸⁶ In this name John wanted to show that the temple is something through which God reveals himself and where one can meet with him.⁸⁷ The angels in this passage are described as priests in the heavenly temple; the function that the temple carries here is the place where God's just judgments are proclaimed. The temple is filled with a cloud from the glory of God, so access to God is impossible for the time of the outpouring of the cups.⁸⁸ Here there is a kind of de-inauguration of the sanctuary, a cessation or abandonment of its cultic activity.⁸⁹

16: 1
At the beginning of the passage about the outpouring of the seven cups of wrath the same temple as in chapter 15 appears again. A loud voice which can be identified as a Divine voice sounds from it. Here the voice from the temple indicates that the events taking place in the world are determined by God.⁹⁰ The temple here acts as the heavenly source of earthly events.

16:17

The next appearance of the temple occurs in the description of the outpouring of the seventh cup in the passage 16:17-21. The text shows that God's judgment is completed and a loud (Divine) voice again sounds from the heavenly temple, as in 16:1. The source of the voice is also specified — it’s the throne. Thus, the temple and throne of God are again associated with each other, the voice of God sounds through the mediation of the temple. This again clearly shows that the temple is a divine person or designate it.

21:3
This text is part of the description of the new creation. Here, as in 13:6, there is both a noun σκηνή and a verb σκηνόω, which is intended to strengthen the idea of God's presence with His people in the new earth. As Beale notes, here the new creation and the New Jerusalem are the temple of God's true presence.⁹¹

21:22
The last time the word "temple" occurs in the passage describing Heavenly Jerusalem (21:9– 22:5). The heavenly city in this passage, which is part of the transcendent, divine world, descends to the earth, thus the separation between the divine and the human is abolished: theophany takes place and the city becomes the place for all peoples for a direct encounter with God.⁹² It is said here about the temple that John didn’t see it, because "the Lord God Almighty and the Lamb are the temple of it".⁹³ Thus, the mediation function of the temple is completed, it’s no longer needed, and nothing else is needed to mediate between human and God.⁹⁴

The meaning of the temple in Revelation

The purpose of this paper is not to clarify the full meaning of the symbolism of the temple in Revelation, since it requires detailed exegesis of many texts and an analysis of the entire complex of the temple language. Nevertheless, I will briefly present possible interpretations of the temple image, as far as it may be necessary in our understanding of its role for the eschatology of the entire book.

Not all studies have the purpose of explaining the image of the temple, because they focus at other goals. As it was mentioned above, scholars either don’t perceive the image of the temple holistically, or they understand it as the church, as a metaphor for the heaven and the dwelling place of God,⁹⁵ or as a real building in the heaven.⁹⁶ It also can be said about the temple, that is the symbol of Christ.⁹⁷ Each of these interpretations as well as some other interpretations are possible. It is also possible that the author of Revelation, being familiar with the primitive Christian understanding of the temple metaphor as a community of the new covenant, both uses it, and rethinks it in an eschatological perspective, referring to the existence of the heavenly temple.⁹⁸ In my opinion, two variants of interpretation can be taken as convincing for the conclusions of the article: the temple as a church and the temple as Christ.⁹⁹ At the same time, we shouldn't forget that the temple is a complicated image, and it is quite possible, considering also the genre of Revelation, that it cannot be reduced to one meaning.

The role of the heavenly temple in the eschatology of Revelation

As it was shown in the analyzing of the texts that the temple occupies an important place in the book, and it’s directly connected with the events described there. The temple is invariably a heavenly reality, not an earthly sanctuary. It’s associated with the throne of God, the voice of God, the judgments of God, the commandments of God, and thus, with God himself. The temple is shown as a place which affects the events of human history. The temple is shown throughout the book as something that unveils itself for John and for humans: it can be accessed, and even the ark in the Holy of Holies can be seen. That is, the temple is no longer as inaccessible as it was in OT. In the eschaton, with the final union of the divine and human realities through the descent of the New Jerusalem from heaven to earth, the mediator role of the temple is no longer needed: all that the sanctuary symbolized has come to complete fulfillment,¹⁰⁰ — and it disappears: humanity encounters the Deity directly, face to face.

Thus, through the symbolism of the temple and its transformations John shows the development of God's relationship with humanity and the final reunification of the heavenly and earthly, the removal of any barriers, intermediaries, symbols, the disappearance of the boundary between the sacred and the profane. In my opinion, the meaning of the temple for the eschatology of Revelation is: to show God’s self-revelation to human through Christ in his incarnation and death, and then to show the complete blurring of boundaries and the attainment of complete unity.

Comparison of Jewish Apocalyptics and Revelation Views

The sanctuary of Israel and the Jerusalem Temple were organized according to the principle of separation of sacral and profane spaces, which was typical for any religious buildings of antiquity, and often remains so today.¹⁰¹ The entire Israelite ritual system was built on the division of reality into sacral and profane¹⁰² (holy, clean, and unclean).

Jewish apocalyptic literature, as it was shown, continues and even intensifies this division, the gap between God and mankind is shown in different ways, and in none of the texts above there is any tendency to eliminate or at least shorten the distance. These texts could not imagine an eschatological city without a temple,¹⁰³ or even imagine an opportunity for any person to come to the throne of God in the Most Holy Place. In Revelation it’s just the opposite: from the very beginning of the book an attempt is made to reduce the gap, and at the end of the book the separation of divine and human completely disappears. This is one of the main differences between Revelation and all Jewish apocalyptic texts and texts from Qumran. In this respect early Christianity differs completely from early Judaism, for which the idea of the new Jerusalem was necessarily linked with the concept of a rich and famous temple.¹⁰⁴ According to John, the holy place is no longer needed to mediate the divine presence, because a person can meet with God directly and comprehensively. The functions of the temple are now realized in God and in Christ directly.¹⁰⁵ The idea of God as a temple is the boldest transpositions of the whole concept of the temple, which, under the influence of Christian thought, is taking place in Revelation.¹⁰⁶

Another difference can be seen in the emphasis on the temple’s liturgy in Jewish apocalypses and its minor role in Revelation. Although there are scenes of worship in Revelation, they express the temple just implicitly, whereas the temple appears in many other functions and situations.

At the same time, there are many similarities between Revelation and Jewish apocalypses. First, it’s temple’s functions. The temple is the place of God's presence, the place of his throne; this is the place where God makes a revelation of himself. The temple in both the Jewish apocalyptic and Revelation is associated with God’s eschatological judgment.¹⁰⁷ In the temple there are angels who also perform their own mission. In addition, both in Revelation and in the apocalypse, the temple is shown as a holy place, inaccessible to desecration.

One can also note the similarity in understanding the temple not as a real earthly temple, but as a spiritual or heavenly temple both in Revelation, in the apocalyptic, and in the ideas of the Qumran community.¹⁰⁸ However, the reasons for such a similar understanding may be different.

According to Stevenson, the similarity of the Jewish apocalyptic and Revelation is also in the use of the temple language in the absence of a physical temple in order to show God's power and the identity of the people of God.¹⁰⁹

And of course, in all texts we can see the structure of the temple identical to the structure of the Jerusalem temple and the Mosaic tabernacle. Thus, it becomes clear that all these texts follow a common tradition of understanding the heavenly sanctuary.

Conclusion: The Heavenly Temple and God’s Relationship with Human

As Spatafora observes, the author of Revelation speaks not about material buildings, but about the theology of the temple, the understanding of its role and the division between the sacral and the profane.¹¹⁰ It can be said that the entire history of the relationship between God and humanity represented in the Bible is aimed at getting rid of this distinction, and to introduce a person into the divine realm.¹¹¹ Therefore, the picture of Rev.21, where there is no mediation between God and people, and no distinction between sacral and profane, laid in the very idea of the temple, is a logical and perfect fulfillment of the original purpose of God.¹¹²

At the same time, in the Jewish apocalyptic literature concept of the temple doesn’t have such a tendency to make God and humanity closer. On the contrary, God is utterly transcendent, sometimes inaccessible even to the prophet, performing the heavenly journey.

Therefore, in general, it can be said that Jewish apocalypses and Revelation show two different views on the relationship between God and human and its development. The eschatological views of the Jewish apocalypse, containing the concept of the heavenly temple, show the just God, who will carry out righteous judgments. However, what is happening in the celestial temple seems to have nothing to do with what is happening on earth. The only participation in earthly history that can be seen in the heavenly temple is the calling of the prophets and the dedication of the priests. The liturgy there does not cease, which indicates the stability and inviolability of the divine order, despite everything that happens on earth. A person is invited to participate in the heavenly liturgy, and thus to communicate the divine. But the Divine itself stays inaccessible and even inexpressible in words. The heavenly temple in Revelation is not static, it is changeable,¹¹³ its events are dramatic: what is happening there reflects God’s actions for drawing people closer, which should finish in complete reunification and elimination of all mediators. Moreover, the dynamics of the actions of God is shown here: the book of Revelation shows God's revelation to the church through the gradual opening of the temple.¹¹⁴ The understanding of this dynamic theology of the temple reveals important spiritual truths. The temple is not something eternal, the temple is needed only for the fulfillment of the Christ’s work of salvation. When the salvation is completed the temple is no longer needed. God is also available during earthly history and enters complete union with humanity in the eschaton. The eschatology of Revelation shows that the separation of God and human will end one day, and that is the meaning of the history and actions of God.