Introduction

A peculiar feature of Revelation’s eschatological language is its emphasis on the impending end of history, an idea which is not foreign also to other books of the New Testament.¹ The last book of the New Testament canon is replete with language of imminence from its first verse to its very end. This temporal emphasis poses a problem in light of the almost two millennia-long time-span between the composition of Revelation and our time. As Stefanovic notes, “2,000 years of waiting have taken a toll on the concept of living in the ‘last days’, putting Christian faith and perseverance to the acid test.”² For this reason, the question of interpreting Revelation’s language of imminence responsibly is of utmost significance: How shall we understand the book’s claims for the imminent parousia? How shall we relate to it intelligently after a 2,000 year-long expectation?

In this paper I will identify and analyze the expressions of imminence in the book of Revelation. It is not the intention of this paper to deal with the problem of the delay of the second coming from a systematic-theological point of view. It will rather attempt to throw light on the language of Revelation by reading it on its own terms. This means, first of all, paying attention not only to exegetical details, but also to the matter of genre, since the character of Revelation’s claims are to be examined in light of similar precedent texts marked by distinctive recurring essential features. Secondly, Revelation’s claims are to be approached salvation-historically, which means interpreting them within the overarching story narrated in the Scriptures as a wider conceptual framework, and the Christ event as its center.³

From time to time Adventist interpreters have attempted to provide an answer to the problem of the extension of the interim period between Jesus’ ascension and his second coming, but their arguments generally did not spring from in-depth exegetical analysis of the imminence passages. Instead of giving detailed attention to biblical texts, the works dealing with the problem of delay were most often merely reflections, intended for a popular audience, trying to provide an explanation for the long interim period.⁴ So, this paper aims to fill a need through its exegetical and biblical-theological argument, seeking to contribute to the larger discussion posed by the problem of delay.

Revelation’s Language of Imminence

In this section I will identify and investigate six expressions of imminence found in Revelation. While four of these expressions are concentrated in the prologue and epilogue, the rest are spread throughout the book. Not all have the same rhetorical force, but they all contribute to generating an atmosphere of imminence which is “at the heart of the Book of Revelation”.⁵

“What must soon take place” (1:1; 22:6)

It stands as a programmatic statement at the beginning of Revelation that the content of the message disclosed in the book is given by God with the intention of showing his servants “what must soon take place” (ἃ δεῖ γενέσθαι ἐν τάχει; 1:1).⁶ In this text, which introduces the main idea of the book, the assurance of the realization of God’s plan for human history (ἃ δεῖ γενέσθαι) is tied to the idea of imminence (ἐν τάχει): the triumph of God’s intentions, culminating in defeating and eradicating evil, is expected to take place soon. Since the expression reoccurs verbatim at the very beginning of the epilogue (22:6), it frames the book.⁷

The phrase is an allusion to Daniel 2:28–29 (LXX), where the prophet in conversation with Nebuchadnezzar points to God, who alone is able to reveal the events of the future communicated to him in a dream.⁸ There is, however, a significant difference between the two texts in regard to the timing of the expected events. While in Daniel the emphasis is on the necessity of the realization of God’s eschatological plan (ἃ δεῖ γενέσθαι ἐπ᾽ ἐσχάτων τῶν ἡμερῶν; “what must take place at the end of days”), in Revelation the imminence of its fulfillment is brought to attention (ἃ δεῖ γενέσθαι ἐν τάχει; “what must soon take place”). As Beale observes, the change in Revelation “is neither random nor purposeless, but provides insight into the relation John sees between Revelation and Daniel”.⁹ It indicates that Daniel 2 and Revelation 1 are linked as promise and fulfillment, since John updates Daniel’s pattern of history with the observation that the prophecies given centuries before his time have begun to be fulfilled and are coming to their climactic realization. Thus, John provides in Revelation an update to the Danielic schema, extending it with additional details for the last days.¹⁰ The certainty of the accomplishment of God’s purposes is indicated by the use of δεῖ (“it is necessary”), which stresses that history unfolds according to the plan of God who is the sovereign Lord of the created order.¹¹

“The time is near” (1:3; 22:10)

The reason for paying heed to the prophetic words of Revelation is stated clearly in the book’s first macarism: “for the time is near” (ὁ γὰρ καιρὸς ἐγγύς; 1:3). The phrase is repeated verbatim in the epilogue (22:10).¹² In both contexts it is strongly tied to the exhortatory purpose of the book, which implies that the apocalyptic view of reality goes hand in hand with ethical responsibility.¹³ The proper response to the nearness of the time involves active participation on the part of the recipients of Revelation: keeping what is written in the prophecies of the book (1:3; 22:7), worshiping God (22:9) and living righteous lives (22:11, 14).

The phrase ὁ γὰρ καιρὸς ἐγγύς is “an exaggerated expression of imminence”, since the time is not seen simply as coming soon (1:1; 22:6), but as already being “close to” fulfillment.¹⁴ For this reason, every minute of the present and the future are loaded with major significance, because “the ‘moment’ is ‘approaching’”, it is constantly pressing in.¹⁵ The use of καιρός highlights a temporal point of particular importance in the plan of God, since its use is qualitative in nature.¹⁶ The term is an important eschatological technical expression which emanates an end-times atmosphere in a number of biblical texts. Thus, in Daniel 7:22 (LXX) the expression ὁ καιρὸς ἐδόθη (“the time is appointed”) refers to the eschatological time when the saints will receive the kingdom. A much closer parallel is found in the programmatic statement of Jesus’ preaching in Mark 1:15, in which the inauguration of God’s kingdom is announced with emphasis on the qualitative significance of the present time (πεπλήρωται ὁ καιρὸς καὶ ἤγγικεν ἡ βασιλεία τοῦ θεοῦ; “the time is fulfilled and the kingdom of God has come near”). The present aspect is in the forefront also in Revelation 1:3, but with a somewhat different meaning: while the Markan text emphasizes the dawning of God’s kingdom in Jesus’ ministry, the focus in Revelation is on the final triumph of God over the forces of evil which can be expected to happen in the immediate future.¹⁷

“Do not seal!” (22:10)

The command “do not seal up the words of the prophecy” of Revelation,¹⁸ linked in 22:10 to the above discussed expression of imminence (“the time is near”), stands in deliberate contrast to the instruction given to Daniel at the end of his book: “shut up the words, and seal the book until the time of the end” (Dan 12:4; cf. 8:26; 12:9). The implications of Daniel’s prophecy regarding the unfolding of human history and establishment of God’s kingdom (how the prophesied events will be fulfilled) were not fully understood by the prophet (8:28; 12:8-9), but it had been made known to him that the end-time had not yet come (12:13). The sealing of Daniel’s prophecies “until the end” indicates that his visions would not be fulfilled, nor fully understood, until the eschaton.¹⁹ In light of the Danielic background, the prohibition on sealing up Revelation’s prophecies points to the notion of imminence, since not only the open character of the book is indicated, but more importantly, the arrival of the time of the end foretold in Daniel. Thus, the time of the writing of the book of Revelation is seen as a time of unveiling the former secrets.

The motif of sealing/unsealing a revelatory book indicating the arrival of the time of the end is characteristic only of Daniel and Revelation, though the idea of concealed revelation until the eschaton is not unique to the biblical literature. Aune demonstrates that closely related to Revelation’s motif are three passages from 4 Ezra in which the seer is told to write his visions in a book that is to be disclosed at the end of the times to those who are wise (4 Ezra 12:37; 14:5–6, 45–46).²⁰ Also, the idea of a delayed disclosure of the content of a revelatory book is a known motif appearing in a number of pseudepigraphic apocalyptic works (Gos. Eg. 68:1–9; T. Mos. 1:17–18; Disc. 8–9).

“I am coming soon” (22:7, 12, 20)

In the epilogue of Revelation (22:6–21) there is a series of promises regarding Jesus’ imminent return. While Jesus is generally silent throughout the main part of the book (with the exception of the exhortation in 16:15), in the epilogue he speaks personally three times. All three speeches emphasize his soon coming by using the formula ἔρχομαι ταχύ (“I am coming soon”).²¹ In the first two references the formula is preceded by the demonstrative particle ἰδού (“see!”; 22:7, 12) which underscores the reliability of the saying, whereas in the third text the promise is anchored by the introductory affirmative particle ναί (“surely”; 22:20). The rhetorical purpose of the triple repetition should not be overlooked. By highlighting emphatically the soon coming of Jesus, a majestic climax is given to the entire book. Since Revelation is a book in which numerical patterns are used to convey theological emphases, the fact that ἔρχομαι occurs seven times in the epilogue (22:7, 12, 17[3x], 20[2x]) cannot be incidental.²² The term functions as a kind of leitmotif which makes the main theological concern of the book its focal point.²³

The final ἔρχομαι ταχύ reference is followed by a response of the Christian community (represented by the author), in a liturgical fashion. The response is introduced by ἀμήν, another well-known particle of affirmation: Ἀμήν, ἔρχου κύριε Ἰησοῦ (“Amen. Come Lord Jesus!”; 22:20). The phrase appears to be the translation of the Aramaic maranatha,²⁴ one of the oldest creedal prayers (see 1 Cor 16:22; Did. 10:6).²⁵ Aune notes that the second-person singular present imperative ἔρχου (“come!”) is an unusual grammatical form, because imperatives are rare in the prayers of the New Testament and early second-century Christian literature. Since in Koine Greek the present imperative is characteristic in situations of intense emotional stress, the use of ἔρχου in response to the final affirmation of the soon coming is “perhaps communicating an affective urgency to the audience”.²⁶ However, urging the coming of the parousia is not the initiative of John, because the formula of imminence is used by the exalted Jesus first, revealing his strong desire to come.²⁷

“A short time” (6:11; 12:12; 20:3)

In spite of its thoroughly liturgical character, Revelation contains only a single prayer of supplication,²⁸ the content of which is related to the matter of time: “How long, Sovereign Lord, holy and true, until you judge and avenge our blood on the inhabitants of the earth?” (6:10) The fact that the petition appears as a cry expressed in a loud voice (ἔκραξαν φωνῇ μεγάλῃ) makes its content emphatic.²⁹ Tonstad rightly notes that the question reflects “a sense of distress in the face of justice delayed”.³⁰ As a response, the saints are assured that their vindication is not unheard: they are told to “remain patient a little longer” (ἀναπαύσονται ἔτι χρόνον μικρόν; 6:11).³¹ The answer makes it clear that “suffering is not random, not meaningless. There is a cosmic plan, there is a divine providence.”³² While God’s vengeance will not be immediate, it will come soon: just a “short time” (χρόνον μικρόν) more until the moral order of the universe will be restored.

The expression “short time” appears also in reference to Satan’s activities after his casting down from heaven (12:12), but significantly, a different expression is used here. The fact that God has put a temporal limitation on his destructive activity calls forth Satan’s anger and since he “has a short time” (ὀλίγον καιρὸν ἔχει), he intensifies his endeavors. As Stefanovic notes, the expression “has here a qualitative rather than quantitative significance” indicating that “Satan’s time is limited and terminated”.³³ This “short time” period, however, spans the period from the defeat at the cross to the ultimate fate at the end of time (20:10). It includes the period of “three and a half times” predicted by Daniel and repeated in Revelation,³⁴ and the extended period given for preaching (10:11) when “time will be no more” (χρόνος οὐκέτι ἔσται; 10:6).³⁵

It is also stated in Revelation that at the end of the millennium Satan will be given an additional period, likewise qualified as a “short time” (μικρὸν χρόνον; 20:3), which he will use for deceiving Gog and Magog preceding his final destruction (20:8).³⁶ In all these texts, as in the case of the promise of 6:11, the plan of God appears in the forefront as a defining principle, which assumes that the sovereign Lord of the universe sets limits to the work of evil and oversees the flow of human history directing it toward the final resolution of the ethical dissonance brought by sin.

“Five have fallen, one is”: Living in the Time of the Sixth King (17:10)

One of Revelation’s clearest answers to the “how long?” question is given in 17:9–11. According to this passage, the recipients of Revelation are living in the time of the sixth king, and only one more is to come in the sequence of seven kings. Since in apocalyptic symbolism “kings” generally stand for “kingdoms” or “empires”, not isolated individuals (see Dan 7:17), Seventh-day Adventist interpreters have traditionally viewed the seven kings as representing “a series of seven successive world powers or empires that have oppressed God’s people throughout history from the establishment of God’s church with Israel down to the Second Coming”.³⁷ Taken from the standpoint of the late first century, the expression “one is” (ὁ εἷς ἔστιν; 17:10) seems to refer to the Roman Empire, the kingdom ruling the world in John’s days.³⁸ The five kingdoms “that have fallen” are the empires that have ruled the world and oppressed God’s people before the time of John: Egypt, Assyria, Babylon, Persia and Greece. The statement that John and the primary addressees of Revelation are living in the period of the sixth king evokes the sense of imminent end, particularly since it is stated about the rule of the coming seventh king that “when he comes, he must remain only a little while” (17:10).

The question is, however, more complex than it seems. While the rule of the seventh king lasts until the end, he is surprisingly described also as the “eighth king” (17:11). This seems a logical paradox, but a period of absence in the rule of the seventh king, corresponding to the fatal wound of the beast (13:3), explains the seeming confusion. The re-enthronement of the seventh king after a break in his rule (healing of the fatal wound; 13:4) ushers into a new phase of his dominion (eighth king), which lasts until the end and is characterized by intense, global influence (17:12–14). Regardless of the interpretive complexity of the passage, the statement of 17:10 emanates, clearly, a sense of eschatological imminence, which is not diminished by the complex history of the “seventh” (or “eighth”) king.

Reading Revelation’s Language of Imminence

As has been demonstrated above, Revelation is pervaded with language of imminence from its very beginning to its end. The perspective of the book is that of a quickly coming eschatological end. In light of the almost two millennia-long wait for the second coming, was John wrong concerning the temporal character of post-Easter history? No. How shall we, then, understand Revelation’s language of imminence? In what follows, I suggest paying attention to three considerations, which clarify the nature of John’s eschatological language and throw light, I believe, on his concept of “nearness”.

Reading Against the Jewish Apocalyptic Background

First of all, Revelation’s language of imminence must be interpreted against its background in Jewish apocalyptic thought.³⁹ The issue of genre is of profound significance, since misinterpretations are often the result of misconceiving how the reading process should function.⁴⁰ While Revelation is distinctive among apocalypses in a number of ways, both in terms of form and content, the high degree of generic continuity points toward categorization of the book as an apocalypse.⁴¹ It is well-known that the language of imminence is an inherent characteristic of the works belonging to the apocalyptic genre. Bauckham points out:

It goes only a little beyond the evidence to say that in every generation between the mid-second century BC and the mid-second century AD Jewish apocalypticists encouraged their readers to hope for the eschatological redemption in the very near future. At the same time there is very little evidence to suggest that during that long period the continued disappointment of that expectation discredited the apocalyptic hope or even diminished the sense of imminence in later generations.⁴²

The reason for preserving a fervent hope for imminent deliverance from generation to generation lies in the nature of apocalyptic expectations. Namely, the apocalyptic faith maintained a balance between the concepts of imminence and delay, which made possible coping with the problem of time.

One of the clearest examples of this tension is found in the Apocalypse of Baruch. While the work is pervaded with the notion of imminence (20:1, 6; 23:7; 48:39; 54:17; 82:2; 83:1; 85:10), with the “how long?” question also featuring significantly in it (81:3; cf. 21:19), at the same time theological factors are pointed out that account for the delay. Thus, the sense of urgency because of the imminent expectation is counterbalanced by an emphasis that the end will come only at the time which the sovereign God has appointed. This perspective is conveyed by the repetition of the phrase “in its time” (5:2; 12:4; 13:5; 20:2; 51:7; 54:1; cf. 42:8).

The significance of this characteristic of apocalyptic thought for the interpretation of Revelation’s temporal perspective is that the book’s language of imminence should not be read in isolation. Its tension with the motif of delay must be taken into account, since the book develops not only a “horizon of imminence”, but also a “not-yet” perspective.⁴³ Revelation’s expressions of imminence are balanced by the heptad series of Seals (6:1–8:1) and Trumpets (8:6–11:18), which in a schematic way portray the gradual advancing of the history of salvation toward the eschaton. Similarly, the narratives delineating end-time scenarios (chs. 12–19) indicate that the end is not just around the corner. The prophetic time period of 1260 days has a similar function, but it points also to the fact that God in his sovereignty has limited the dominion of evil, and he oversees the development of the world’s affairs.

Resseguie notes that tension is even part of one of God’s major titles in the book: ὁ ὢν καὶ ὁ ἦν καὶ ὁ ἐρχόμενος (“the One who was, who is and who is to come”; 1:4, 8; 4:8). Clearly, the third part of the formula gives the title an explicit dynamic, since the expected “who will be” is replaced with the present participle of “to come” (“the one who is coming”).⁴⁴ Thus, even in God’s name the present and the future are drawn together in a tension, in reference to the parousia.

Reading Salvation-Historically

Secondly, Revelation’s expressions of imminence are to be interpreted within the wider framework of the biblical meta-story, particularly in light of Easter, the great turning point of salvation-history, which ushered the world into the era of end-times.⁴⁵ As demonstrated by Cullmann, the Christ-event has given time a new salvation-historical center.⁴⁶ As the climactic event of human history, it is the anchor of hope for humanity, which breathed an atmosphere of fresh newness into the period following the cross. As a new era, this period is qualitatively different from the pre-Easter old age, since with Christ’s resurrection the end-time “new creation” has been inaugurated and it has been granted to mankind to experience the foretaste and power of the kingdom of God.

In the new creation brought by the Christ-event, not only was the meaning of human history redefined, but also the concept of time received a new sense. In the victory on the cross, followed by the resurrection as its seal and Pentecost as the sign of Christ’s heavenly enthronement, God’s triumph over the forces of evil is made definite. Since the outcome of the cosmic conflict is resolved and the next major salvation-historical event is the second coming of Christ, the time is clearly “short”. After the climactic events of Easter and Pentecost the parousia is only a step away, so it is appropriately qualified as an event which is “near”. Beale rightly concludes that “whether this event would occur in one year or 5,000 years, it could still be referred to as ‘near,’ since it is the major next event to occur in the decretive order of God’s redemptive plan”.⁴⁷

Reading in Light of the Function of the Apocalyptic Language

Thirdly, Revelation’s language of imminence is to be understood in relation to the function of the apocalyptic thought pattern. As an apocalyptic work, written with the purpose of pastoral encouragement, Revelation aims to reveal the truth about reality by narrating “a story in and through which the people of God discover who they are and what they are to do”.⁴⁸ The present era of the inaugurated kingdom is portrayed as a time of watching, repenting and proclaiming the gospel through which God’s people are to achieve victory (2:7, 11, 17, 26; 3:5, 12, 21). Apocalyptic language of imminence is employed in Revelation not for generating immature excitement, but with the purpose of opening the eyes of God’s people to see clearly the critical significance of the period of history they are living in (the post-Easter end-times in which the cosmic conflict between God and Satan is intensified), and to sense the urgency of acting in accordance with God’s plan in carrying out the task committed to them. Therefore, the expressions of imminence are not to be seen primarily as temporal statements which are to be evaluated by human measures of time. They are rather to be taken as messages of warning given to “express confidence in the fulfilment of God’s promises, the call for alertness and sobriety, the call for a decision and encouragement in view of suffering” and persecution.⁴⁹ So, language of imminence has an expressive and pragmatic function, which goes beyond conveying information about the temporal dimensions of reality. It seeks to prompt God’s people to faithfulness and dedication in the face of a crisis, and by generating a sense of urgency it aims to focus their attention on the fulfillment of the task God has allotted to them.

Conclusion

This study has demonstrated that the book of Revelation, in the fashion of ancient apocalyptic works, is permeated with language of imminence. However, conclusions cannot be drawn that the author of Revelation was advocating the idea of Christ return in his own generation or soon after his death. An argument presented in this paper demonstrated that Revelation’s language of imminence is not employed with the goal of providing temporal statements measurable by human categories of time, but it is to be interpreted against its background in Jewish apocalyptic literature, and within the salvation-historical frame of thought, which defined the thinking of the biblical authors. It has been demonstrated that the purpose of employing language of imminence is exhortative, since time appears short in case of urgency. Also, living between the Easter and the second advent means living in the end-times, which is short, because the climactic event of history, the victory of Jesus on the cross, followed by his resurrection and the Pentecost, already occurred, and the next major salvation-history event that is expected to take place is Christ’s return in glory.